Lead toxicity has emerged as a critical public health concern due to its persistent presence in the environment and its irreversible effects on the human brain. Lead is a non-biodegradable heavy metal that enters the human body primarily through contaminated water, food, soil, paint, industrial emissions, and occupational exposure. Once absorbed, it circulates in the blood and crosses the blood–brain barrier, leading to neurotoxic effects that vary according to age and exposure level. Children are particularly vulnerable, as their developing nervous system absorbs lead more efficiently and eliminates it more slowly than adults. Even low levels of lead exposure during early childhood have been linked to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, attention-deficit disorders, memory loss, and impaired academic performance. At the molecular level, lead interferes with neurotransmitter release, disrupts calcium-dependent signaling, and induces oxidative stress that damages neuronal membranes and mitochondria. Structural imaging studies reveal decreased brain volume in regions such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, which are critical for memory, learning, and decision-making. In adults, prolonged lead exposure contributes to mood disorders, depression, reduced motor coordination, and an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Clinical manifestations include irritability, headaches, cognitive decline, seizures in severe cases, and psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety and aggression. The management of lead neurotoxicity requires a multidisciplinary approach. Preventive measures such as phasing out lead-based paints, monitoring industrial emissions, and ensuring safe drinking water are crucial for reducing exposure. In clinical settings, chelation therapy using agents like EDTA or DMSA is employed in severe cases to enhance lead excretion. Additionally, nutritional interventions with calcium, zinc, and iron can mitigate lead absorption and toxicity. Global organizations such as WHO and CDC have emphasized the urgency of reducing environmental lead exposure, yet many developing nations continue to face challenges in policy implementation and public awareness.
Lead toxicity; Brain function; Neurotoxicity; Heavy metals; Children development; Cognitive impairment; Oxidative stress; Neurodegeneration; Chelation therapy; Public health
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